Reading list

Regulation

Council of Europe

European Convention on Human Rights/Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, ETS No. 5, Rome, 4 November 1950.

European Union (EU)

Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 2022 on a Single Market for Digital Services and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (Digital Services Act).
Proposal for a Directive 2022/0117 of 27 April 2022 on protecting persons who engage in public participation from manifestly unfounded or abusive court proceedings (“Strategic lawsuits against public participation”) (proposal for an anti-SLAPP Directive).
Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a common framework for media services in the internal market (European Media Freedom Act) and amending Directive 2010/13/EU, COM/2022/457 final, 16 September 2022.

Case-law

European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)

Airey v. Ireland, no. 6289/73, 9 October 1979.
Goodwin v. the United Kingdom, no. 17488/90,27 March 1996.
Özgür Gündem v. Turkey, no. 23144/93, 16 March 2000.
Ernst and others v. Belgium, no. 33400/96, 15 July 2003.
Dink v. Turkey, nos. 2668/07, 6102/08, 30079/08, 7072/09 and 7124/09, 14 September 2010.
Mazepa and others v. Russia, no. 15086/07, 17 July 2018
Khadija Ismayilova v. Azerbaijan, nos. 65286/13 and 57270/14, 10 January 2019.
OOO Memo v. Russia, no. 2840/10, 15 March 2022.

Policy instruments

Council of Europe – Committee of Ministers

Recommendation CM/Rec(2016)4 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the protection of journalism and safety of journalists and other media actors, 13 April 2016.
DGI(2020)11 – ‘How to protect journalists and other media actors?’, Implementation Guide to Recommendation CM/Rec(2016)4 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the protection of journalism and safety of journalists and other media actors, 2020.[1]
Summary: T. McGonagle, ‘Committee of Ministers: New Recommendation on Protection of Journalists and Safety of Journalists and Other Media Actors’, IRIS 2016-5:1/3, IRIS Legal Observations of the European Audiovisual Observatory.
Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)4 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on promoting a favourable environment for quality journalism in the digital age, 17 March 2022.
Summary: A. Lacourt, ‘Council of Europe: Recommendation to Promote a Favourable Environment for Quality Journalism in the Digital Age’, IRIS 2022-4:1/6, IRIS Legal Observations of the European Audiovisual Observatory.
Council of Europe Committee of Experts on Strategic Lawsuits against Public Participation (MSI-SLP), Draft Recommendation CM/Rec(20XX)XX of the Committee of Ministers to member states on countering the use of SLAPPs, MSI-SLP(2022)07, Revised draft for public consultation, June-August 2023.

Council of Europe – Conferences of Ministers responsible for Media and Information Society

Political Declaration and Resolution, ‘Safety of Journalists’, adopted at the Council of Europe Conference of Ministers responsible for Media and Information Society, entitled, ‘Freedom of Expression and Democracy in the Digital Age: Opportunities, Rights, Responsibilities’ in Belgrade on 8 November 2013.
Summary: T. McGonagle, ‘Council of Europe: Ministerial Conference on Freedom of Expression and Democracy in the Digital Age’, IRIS 2014-2:1/3, IRIS Legal Observations of the European Audiovisual Observatory.
Resolution on the safety of journalists, Council of Europe Conference of Ministers responsible for Media and Information Society, ‘Artificial Intelligence – Intelligent Politics: Challenges and opportunities for media and democracy’, 11 June 2021, https://www.coe.int/en/web/freedom-expression/media2021nicosia
Summary: T. McGonagle, ‘Ministerial Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Media and Democracy’, IRIS 2021-7:1/3, IRIS Legal Observations of the European Audiovisual Observatory.

Council of Europe – Parliamentary Assembly (PACE)

Resolution 2035 (2015), ‘Protection of the safety of journalists and of media freedom in Europe’, 29 January 2015.
Resolution 2141 (2017), ‘Attacks against journalists and media freedom in Europe’, 24 January 2017.
Resolution 2317 (2020), ‘Threats to media freedom and journalists’ security in Europe’, 28 January 2020.

European Commission (EU)

Recommendation on ensuring the protection, safety and empowerment of journalists and other media professionals in the European Union, 16 September 2021.
Summary: T. McGonagle, ‘European Commission Recommendation on Safety and Protection of Journalists’, IRIS 2021-9:1/5, IRIS Legal Observations of the European Audiovisual Observatory.

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

OSCE Ministerial Council Decision No. 03/18, ‘Decision on the Safety of Journalists’, 7 December 2018, Doc. No. MC.DEC/3/18.

United Nations

Human Rights Committee, ‘General comment No. 34. Article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression’, CCPR/C/GC/34, 12 September 2011.
UNESCO International Programme for the Development of Communication, UN Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, 2012.
High Commissioner for Human Rights, Safety of Journalists, UN Doc. No. A/HRC/39/23, 6 August 2018.
Human Rights Council, Resolution 51/9, ‘The safety of journalists’, UN Doc. No. A/HRC/RES/51/9, 6 October 2022.
Human Rights Council, Resolution 45/18, ‘The safety of journalists’, UN Doc. No. A/HRC/RES/45/18, 6 October 2020.
Human Rights Council, Resolution 39/6, ‘The safety of journalists’, UN Doc. No. A/HRC/RES/39/6, 27 September 2018.
Human Rights Council, Resolution 33/2, ‘The safety of journalists’, UN Doc. No. A/HRC/33/2 29 September 2016.

Academic materials, studies and reports

Council of Europe

B. Çalı, ‘Does the remedy journalism of the European Court of Human Rights do enough for media freedom?’, in Onur Andreotti, Ed., Journalism at risk: Threats, challenges and perspectives (Strasbourg, Council of Europe Publishing, 2015), pp. 81-104.
M. Clark & W. Horsley, (Ed. E. Brodeală) A Mission to Inform. Journalists at risk speak out, (Strasbourg, Council of Europe Publishing, 2020).
T. McGonagle, ‘Positive obligations concerning freedom of expression: mere potential or real power?’, in Onur Andreotti, Ed., Journalism at risk: Threats, challenges and perspectives (Strasbourg, Council of Europe Publishing, 2015), pp. 9-35.
J. Marthoz, Ed., Defending Press Freedom in Times of Tension and Conflict (Strasbourg, Platform to Promote the Protection of Journalism and Safety of Journalists, Council of Europe, 2022).
D. Mijatović, ‘Protection of journalists from violence’, in Human rights and a changing media landscape (Strasbourg, Council of Europe Publishing, 2011), pp. 21-45.
S. Parmar, ‘The international human rights protection of journalists’, in Onur Andreotti, Ed., Journalism at risk: Threats, challenges and perspectives (Strasbourg, Council of Europe Publishing, 2015), pp. 37-80.
C. Wardle & H. Derakhshan, Information Disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, (Strasbourg, Council of Europe Publishing, 2017).

European Union (EU)

J. Bayer, P. Bárd, L. Vosyliūtė, N. Chun Luk, Strategic Lawsuits Against Public Participation (SLAPP) in the European Union. A comparative study, European Commission, 2021.
J. Borg-Barthet, B. Lobina & M. Zabrocka, The Use of SLAPPs to Silence Journalists, NGOs and Civil Society – a study commissioned by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizen’s Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request by the JURI Committee (Committee on Legal Affairs), June 2021.
Centre for Media Pluralism and Media Freedom (CMPF), European University Institute CiTiP (Centre for Information Technology and Intellectual Property) of KU Leuven Institute for Information Law of the University of Amsterdam (IViR/UvA) Vrije Universiteit Brussels (Studies in Media, Innovation and Technology, VUB- SMIT), Study on media plurality and diversity online: final report, European Commission, Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology, Publications Office of the European Union, 2022.
T. McGonagle, R. Ó Fathaigh, G. Bouché, M. Rucz, S. Stapel, M. Seel, A. van der Sangen, Safety of journalists and the fighting of corruption in the EU – a study commissioned by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request of the LIBE Committee (Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs), July 2020.

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

W. Horsley (Ed.: A. Rikhter), Safety of journalists Guidebook (3rd edition), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Representative on Freedom of the Media, Vienna 2020.
S. Chocarro, S. Clarke, P. Gutiérrez, J. Taing, (Ed.: K. Olson) Safety of Female Journalists Online – A #SOFJO Resource Guide, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Representative on Freedom of the Media, Vienna 2020.
T. McGonagle, Doubling down on safety of journalists – An analysis and positioning of OSCE Ministerial Council Decision No. 3/18 – Safety of Journalists (2018) in a wider context, Study commissioned by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) (OSCE) Representative on Freedom of the Media, Vienna 2022.

International organizations

I. Khan, C. Amanpour, M. Mukaiwa, S. Kohn, N. Dixit, A. Navarro Bello, A. Pazianou, A. Geybulla, J. Bedoya Lima, D. Moukalled, J. Garcia, M. Ferrier, including one journalist who wishes to remain anonymous, #JournalistsToo – Women Journalists Speak out. A collection of essays on personal experiences with harassment, UNESCO 2021.
J. Posetti, N. Aboulez, K. Bontcheva, J. Harrison, S. Waisbord, Online violence Against Women Journalists: A Global Snapshot of Incidence and Impacts, UNESCO 2020.
J. Posetti, K. Bontcheva & N. Shabbir, The Chilling: Assessing Big Tech’s Response to Online Violence Against Women Journalists, UNESCO 2022.
J. Posetti & N. Shabbir, The Chilling: What More Can News Organisations Do to Combat Gendered Online Violence?, UNESCO 2022.
J. Posetti & N. Shabbir, The Chilling: A global study of online violence against women journalists, International Center for Journalists and UNESCO 2022.
J. Posetti, N. Shabbir, D. Maynard, K. Bontcheva, N. Aboulez, The Chilling: Global trends in online violence against women journalists, UNESCO 2021.
D. Šimonović, Combating violence against women journalists. Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Human Rights Council 2020.
B. Trionfi & J. Luque, Newsroom Best Practices for Addressing Online Violence against Journalists. Perspectives from Finland, Germany, Poland, Spain and the United Kingdom, International Press Institute and OSCE[2] 2019.

Other

R. Bonello Ghio & D. Nasreddin, The Daphne Caruana Galizia Foundation, Shutting Out Criticism: How SLAPPs Threaten European Democracy, (The Coalition Against SLAPPs in Europe (CASE)) 2022.
M. Douglas, ‘Doxing: a conceptual analysis’, Ethics and Information Technology 2016, vol. 18(3), pp. 199-210.
M. Ferrier, Attacks and Harassment. The Impact on Female Journalists and Their Reporting, (ed.: E. Lees Munoz), Trollbusters and International Women’s Media Foundation 2018.
B. Hamada, ‘Determinants of Journalists’ Autonomy and Safety: Evidence from the Worlds of Journalism Study’, Journalism Practice 2022, vol. 16(8), pp. 1715-1735.
S. Macharia & J. Barata Mir, Global Study: Gender Equality and Media Regulation, Fojo Media Institute, Linnaeus University 2022.
T. McGonagle, Representation of Minorities: Rights of Access (February 7, 2012). Media and Human Rights, London, Clemens Nathan Research Centre, pp. 106-126, 2009, Amsterdam Law School Research Paper No. 2012-18, Institute for Information Law Research Paper No. 2012-14.
T. McGonagle, How to address current threats to journalism?: The role of the Council of Europe in protecting journalists and other media actors, Expert paper, Doc. No. MCM 2013(009), the Council of Europe Conference of Ministers responsible for Media and Information Society, ‘Freedom of Expression and Democracy in the Digital Age: Opportunities, Rights, Responsibilities’, Belgrade, 7-8 November 2013.
Media Freedom Rapid Response (European Federation of Journalists, International Press Institute and European Centre for Press and Media Freedom), ‘Mapping Media Freedom. Monitoring Report 2022’, 2022.
L. Palmer, ‘Press Freedom during Covid-19: The Digital Discourses of the International Press Institute, Reporters Sans Frontières, and the Committee to Protect Journalists’, Digital Journalism 2022, vol. 10(6), pp. 1079-1097.
P. Di Salvo, ‘“We have to act Like our Devices are Already Infected”: Investigative Journalists and Internet Surveillance’, Journalism Practice 2022, vol. 16(9), pp. 1849-1866.
L. Stahel & C. Schoen, ‘Female journalists under attack? Explaining gender differences in reactions to audiences’ attacks’, New Media & Society 2020, vol. 22(10), pp. 1849-1867.
M. Urbániková & L. Haniková, ‘Coping with the Murder: The Impact of Ján Kuciak’s Assassination on Slovak Investigative Journalists’, Journalism Practice 2022, vol. 16(9), pp. 1927-1947.
S. Waisbord, ‘Can Journalists Be Safe in a Violent World?’, Journalism Practice 2022, vol. 16(9), pp. 1948-1954.

Websites

Council of Europe

The Platform for the Protection of Journalism and Safety of Journalists
HELP (Human Rights Education for Legal Professionals) Programme: Protection and Safety of Journalists Course

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media (RFoM)
OSCE RFOM, Focus on safety of journalists
OSCE RFOM, Safety of female journalists online (#SOFJO)

NGOs

[1] Please note that this Implementation Guide does not have the same status as Council of Europe Recommendations. This document aims to assist Council of Europe member States in the implementation of Council of Europe’s Committee of Ministers’ Recommendation CM/Rec(2016)4.

[2] The OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media participated in the gender component of this publication.