Policy instruments
- EU 2022 Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation, 16 June 2022.
- The United Nations (UN) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Representative on Freedom of the Media, the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, Joint Declaration on “Fake News”, Disinformation and Propaganda, 3 March 2017.
Reports
- C. Wardle & H. Derakhshan, Information Disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, Council of Europe report DGI(2017)09, September 2017.
- European Commission, A multi-dimensional approach to disinformation, Report of the independent High level Group on fake news and online disinformation, March 2018.
- European Commission, ‘Tackling online disinformation’, overview of initiatives.
- European Regulators Group for Audiovisual Media Services (ERGA), Notions of disinformation and related concepts, Report, 2020, Executive Summary, pp. 6-16.
- The Santa Clara Principles on Transparency and Accountability in Content Moderation (Santa Clara Principles 2.0).
Literature & commentary
(i) Academic literature
- S. Brown, ‘Study: Digital literacy doesn’t stop the spread of misinformation’ (MIT Management Sloan School, 5 January 2022).
- D. Chesney & D. Keats Citron, ‘Deep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy, and National Security’ (2019) 107 California Law Review 1753.
- T. Dame Adjin-Tettey, ‘Combating fake news, disinformation, and misinformation: Experimental evidence for media literacy education’ 9(1) Cogent Arts & Humanities (2022).
- D. Frau-Meigs, ‘How Disinformation Reshaped the Relationship between Journalism and Media and Information Literacy (MIL): Old and New Perspectives Revisited’ (2022) 10 Digital Journalism 912-922.
- A.M. Guess et al, ‘A digital media literacy intervention increases discernment between mainstream and false news in the United States and India’ (PNAS, 7 July 2020).
- Harvard Kennedy School, ‘Misinformation Review: Digital literacy is associated with more discerning accuracy judgments but not sharing intentions’ (6 December 2021).
- M. Land & R. Hamilton, ‘Beyond Takedown: Expanding the Toolkit for Responding to Online Hate’ in P. Dojcinovic (ed) Propaganda, War Crimes Trials and International Law: From Cognition to Criminality 143 (Routledge 2020).
- J. Nathan Matias, ‘Preventing harassment and increasing group participation through social norms in 2,190 online science discussions,’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), 14 May 2019.
- J. McDougall, M. Zezulkova, B. Van Driel & D. Sternadel, ‘Teaching media literacy in Europe: evidence of effective school practices in primary and secondary education’ (EU Publications, NESET II report, 2018).
- T. McGonagle, ‘“Fake news”: False fears or real concerns?’, 35 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights (No. 4, December 2017), 203-209.
- K. Pentney, ‘Tinker, Tailor, Twitter, Lie: Government Disinformation and Freedom of Expression in a Post-Truth Era’ (2022) 22 Human Rights Law Review 1-29.
- NYU Stern Center for Business and Human Rights, ‘Harmful Content: The Role of Internet Platform Companies in Fighting Terrorist Incitement and Politically Motivated Disinformation,’ (New York 2017).
(ii) News commentary
- V. Ananth, ‘WhatsApp Races Against Time to Fix Fake News Mess Ahead of 2019 General Elections’ (The Economic Times, 24 July 2018).
- A. Feuer, ‘Trump Campaign Knew Lawyers’ Voting Machine Claims Were Baseless, Memo Shows’ (New York Times, updated 28 June 2022).
- J. Henley, ‘How Finland starts its fight against fake news in primary schools’ (The Guardian, 29 January 2020).
- J. Posetti & A. Matthews, ‘A short guide to the history of “fake news” and disinformation’ International Center for Journalists (July 2018), 1-19.
Multimedia
- D. Citron, How deepfakes undermine truth and democracy, TED Summit 2019 [Video, 13.08].
- D. Funke, A guide to anti-misinformation actions around the world, The Poynter Institute.
- MediaSmarts, ‘Digital & Media Literacy: Best Practices’.